⚖️ Indian Constitution & Polity (Civics)

📌 1. Historical Background & Constituent Assembly (10 min read)

A. British Acts — what came from which Act

B. Constituent Assembly — Key Facts

• The idea of a Constituent Assembly was first given by M.N. Roy (1934). Congress officially demanded it in 1935.
• It was formed under the proposals of the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946). (3 members of the Cabinet Mission: Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander.)
• Total members 389 (296 British India + 93 princely states). Members from British India were elected in July-August 1946 by the provincial assemblies (indirect).
• First meeting: 9 December 1946. Temporary chairman: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha (the oldest member).
• Permanent President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad (11 Dec 1946). Constitutional Advisor: B.N. Rau.
• Objectives Resolution: moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 Dec 1946, adopted on 22 Jan 1947. It later became the Preamble.
• Interim Government — formed under the Cabinet Mission plan on 2 September 1946 (Nehru — Vice-President of the Viceroy's Executive Council).
• After partition, the membership came down to 299.
• Drafting Committee: formed on 29 August 1947, chairman Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, 7 members in total (N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar, K.M. Munshi, Syed Mohammad Saadullah, N. Madhava Rau, T.T. Krishnamachari).
• The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 — this day is now celebrated as Samvidhan Divas (Constitution Day). Fully in force: 26 January 1950 (because Purna Swaraj Day was celebrated on 26 Jan 1930).
• Time taken: 2 years 11 months 18 days, 11 sessions.
• 24 January 1950: last meeting — 284 members signed; Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President; the national anthem and national song were adopted. The national flag was adopted on 22 July 1947.
• Original Constitution: Preamble + 395 Articles, 22 Parts, 8 Schedules.

C. Major Committees & Chairmen

📌 2. Sources of the Constitution (Borrowed Features) & Salient Features (8 min read)

A. Sources table (Most asked!)

B. Salient Features

• The longest written constitution in the world; it is an enacted constitution — not "evolved" or unwritten like the UK's.
• A mix of rigid + flexible — some parts are changed by simple majority, most by special majority, and some with the consent of the states (Art 368).
• Federal system with unitary bias — K.C. Wheare called it "quasi-federal". Art 1 does not use the word "federation"; it says "Union of States".
• Parliamentary form of government (at both Centre and States) — the President is the nominal head, the PM/CoM is the real executive.
• A blend of parliamentary sovereignty and judicial supremacy; integrated & independent judiciary.
• FR, DPSP, FD; secular state; universal adult franchise (18 years); single citizenship; independent bodies (ECI, CAG, UPSC); emergency provisions; three-tier government (after the 73rd/74th).

📌 3. Preamble (5 min read)

Text of the Preamble (worth memorising)

"WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION."

* Socialist, Secular and Integrity — these 3 words were added by the 42nd Amendment 1976. The Preamble has been amended only once so far.

• The ideal of Justice (social, economic, political) — from the Russian Revolution (USSR); Liberty, Equality, Fraternity — from the French Revolution.
• Basis of the Preamble = Nehru's Objectives Resolution.
• Berubari Union case (1960): the Preamble is NOT a part of the Constitution. Kesavananda Bharati case (1973): the Preamble is a part of the Constitution (the same in the LIC case 1995). It can be amended, but the basic structure cannot be changed.
• The Preamble is not enforceable (non-justiciable) in court.
• K.M. Munshi called it the "political horoscope" and N.A. Palkhivala called it the "identity card of the Constitution".

📌 4. Parts & Schedules of the Constitution (6 min read)

A. Parts

B. 12 Schedules

📌 5. The Union & its Territory (Art 1–4), States Reorganisation & Formation of MP (8 min read)

• Art 1: "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States". Territory = States + UTs + acquired territories.
• Art 2: Admission of new states into the Union (that were not earlier part of India) — like Sikkim (full state by the 36th Amendment 1975).
• Art 3: Parliament can by law form a new state, and change the area/boundary/name of any state. The Bill comes on the recommendation of the President; the President takes the views of the state legislature concerned (accepting the views is not necessary). Passed by simple majority.
• Art 4: Laws under Art 2 and 3 are not considered "amendments of the Constitution" under Art 368.

States Reorganisation

• In 1950 the states were in 4 categories: Part A (former Governor's provinces), Part B (unions of princely states — Rajpramukh), Part C (Chief Commissioner's provinces), Part D (Andaman-Nicobar).
• The Dhar Commission (1948) and the JVP Committee (Nehru, Patel, Pattabhi Sitaramayya — 1948) rejected language-based states.
• Andhra (1953) — the first linguistic state (after Potti Sriramulu died on hunger strike).
• Fazl Ali Commission (States Reorganisation Commission, 1953; members K.M. Panikkar, H.N. Kunzru) → States Reorganisation Act 1956 + 7th Amendment 1956: A/B/C/D categories ended; from 1 Nov 1956, 14 states and 6 UTs.
• Today: 28 States, 8 UTs (J&K and Ladakh UTs — 31 Oct 2019; merger of Dadra-Nagar Haveli and Daman-Diu — 26 Jan 2020).

📌 6. Citizenship (Part II, Art 5–11) (5 min read)

Citizenship Act 1955

• 5 ways of acquiring citizenship: birth, descent, registration, naturalisation, incorporation of territory.
• 3 ways of losing citizenship: (1) Renunciation — giving it up oneself; (2) Termination — automatic on voluntarily acquiring another country's citizenship; (3) Deprivation — taken away by the Central Govt (fraud, disloyalty to the Constitution, trading with the enemy during war, a sentence of 2+ years within 5 years of registration/naturalisation, or living outside India continuously for 7 years — these grounds apply to citizens by registration/naturalisation).
• General rule for naturalisation: residence in India for the 12 months just before applying + 11 of the 14 years before that.
• CAA 2019 (Citizenship Amendment Act): for Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and Christians who came from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan up to 31 Dec 2014, the period for naturalisation is 5 years. Rules notified on 11 March 2024.
• OCI (Overseas Citizen of India) — this is NOT dual citizenship; it gives some facilities (lifelong visa).

📌 7. Fundamental Rights & Writs (Part III, Art 12–35) (12 min read)

A. 6 Fundamental Rights — Article-wise

Art 12 = definition of "State" · Art 13 = laws inconsistent with FR are void — this is the basis of judicial review · Art 33 = Parliament can restrict the FR of the armed forces, police etc. · Art 34 = restriction on FR during martial law · Art 35 = laws on some FR will be made only by Parliament.

B. 5 Writs — Art 32 (SC) & Art 226 (HC)

SC vs HC: The SC (Art 32) issues writs only for FR; the HC (Art 226) issues them for FR as well as for other legal rights — so the writ jurisdiction of the HC is wider. Art 32 is itself an FR; Art 226 is not.

📌 8. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP — Part IV, Art 36–51) (6 min read)

Classification: Socialist (38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 47) · Gandhian (40, 43, 46, 47, 48) · Liberal-intellectual (44, 45, 48, 48A, 49, 50, 51). Minerva Mills (1980): the balance between FR and DPSP is part of the basic structure of the Constitution.

📌 9. Fundamental Duties (Part IVA, Art 51A) (4 min read)

• On the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee, Part IVA and Art 51A were added by the 42nd Amendment 1976. Inspiration: USSR (former Soviet Union).
• Initially 10 duties; the 11th — 51A(k) — by the 86th Amendment 2002: parents/guardians shall provide opportunities for education to their child of 6–14 years.
• They apply only to citizens and are non-justiciable (the court does not enforce them directly).

📌 10. Union Executive — President, Vice-President, Prime Minister, Council of Ministers, Attorney General (Art 52–78) (12 min read)

A. President (Art 52–62)

• Art 52: There shall be a President of India. Art 53: the executive power of the Union is vested in the President. Supreme commander of all three armed forces.
• Election (Art 54): electoral college — elected members of both Houses of Parliament + elected members of the legislative assemblies of the states and of Delhi, Puducherry (not nominated members, not the Vidhan Parishad). Method: proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote (from Ireland).
• Qualifications: citizen, 35 years, qualified to be a member of the Lok Sabha. Term 5 years, can be re-elected.
• Oath: administered by the CJI. Resignation: to the Vice-President.
• Impeachment (Art 61): only ground is "violation of the Constitution"; can start in either House; 14 days' notice; by a majority of 2/3 of the total membership of each House. Nominated members take part, MLAs do not.
• Powers: Art 72 — pardon, reprieve, respite, remission, commutation (can also pardon sentences by a court martial and the death sentence; the Governor under Art 161 cannot pardon a death sentence). Art 123 — Ordinance (when Parliament is not in session). Art 143 — advice from the SC. Art 352/356/360 — emergency.
• Art 74(1): the President shall act on the advice of the Council of Ministers — the 42nd Amendment (1976) made the advice binding; the 44th (1978) gave the President the right to send the advice back once for reconsideration, but advice given again must be accepted.
• Powers over Parliament (Art 85): to summon the Houses, to prorogue them, and to dissolve the Lok Sabha. Adjournment is done by the Speaker/Chairman, not the President.
• Salary and allowances are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India, and cannot be reduced during the term (Art 59(4)).
• Present President: Smt. Droupadi Murmu (15th President, since 25 July 2022) (as of Sep 2026). First President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

B. Vice-President (Art 63–71)

• Art 64: ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. (Office taken from the US.)
• Election: all members of both Houses of Parliament (including nominated); MLAs do not take part. Qualifications: 35 years, qualified to be a member of the Rajya Sabha. Term 5 years.
• Oath: administered by the President; resignation: to the President. Removal: by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an effective majority and agreed to by the Lok Sabha (14 days' notice) — not impeachment.
• Present: C.P. Radhakrishnan (15th VP, since 12 Sep 2025) (as of Sep 2026).

C. Prime Minister & Council of Ministers (Art 74–75)

• Art 74: there shall be a Council of Ministers with the PM at its head to advise the President. Art 75(1): the PM is appointed by the President; the other ministers on the PM's advice.
• Art 75(3): the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
• Art 75(5): a minister who is not a member of either House for 6 consecutive months ceases to be a minister at the end of that period. (Same in the states — Art 164(4).)
• 91st Amendment (2003): size of the Council of Ministers max 15% of the total strength of the Lok Sabha (in states 15% of the assembly, but at least 12).
• Present PM: Narendra Modi (third term since 9 June 2024) (as of Sep 2026). First PM: Jawaharlal Nehru.

D. Attorney General (Art 76)

• The highest law officer of the Government of India. Appointed by the President; qualification = qualified to be an SC judge. No fixed term — holds office during the pleasure of the President.
• Art 88: right to speak and take part in both Houses of Parliament, but no right to vote. Right of audience in any court in India.
• Counterpart in the state: Advocate General — Art 165. Present AG: R. Venkataramani (reappointed for 2 years from 1 Oct 2025) (as of Sep 2026).

E. Oath & Resignation — Quick Table

📌 11. Parliament (Art 79–122) (12 min read)

A. Lok Sabha vs Rajya Sabha

Nominated (12): the President nominates experts in literature, science, art and social service (Art 80(3)) — inspired by Ireland. The provision for nominating 2 Anglo-Indians to the Lok Sabha ended in Jan 2020 by the 104th Amendment. From MP: Lok Sabha 29, Rajya Sabha 11 seats.

B. Session & Procedure Terms

• Art 85: the gap between two sessions must not be more than 6 months. Traditional 3 sessions: Budget, Monsoon, Winter.
• Question Hour (the first hour); Zero Hour — an Indian innovation (since 1962), not mentioned in the rules.
• A no-confidence motion only in the Lok Sabha, support of at least 50 members; giving reasons is not necessary.

C. Bills

Joint sitting held 3 times so far: Dowry Prohibition (1961), Banking Service Commission (Repeal) (1978), POTA (2002). Budget = "Annual Financial Statement" (Art 112). Consolidated Fund Art 266; Contingency Fund Art 267.

D. Speaker of the Lok Sabha (Art 93–96)

• The Lok Sabha elects him from among its members. Certifies money bills, presides over joint sittings, casting vote (Art 100) in case of a tie, decides disqualification under the 10th Schedule (defection), adjourns the House.
• Resignation: to the Deputy Speaker. Removal: by a resolution passed by a majority of all the then members of the Lok Sabha, 14 days' notice. Even when the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the Speaker stays in office until the first sitting of the new House.
• First Speaker: G.V. Mavalankar. Present: Om Birla (since 2019; re-elected on 26 June 2024) (as of Sep 2026).

E. Parliamentary Committees (Financial Committees)

All these are Parliamentary Committees (not Cabinet committees). Members are elected every year by proportional representation; ministers cannot be members.

📌 12. Judiciary — Supreme Court, High Courts, Judicial Review, PIL (10 min read)

A. Supreme Court (Art 124–147)

• Art 124: establishment and constitution of the SC. Inaugurated: 28 January 1950 (in place of the Federal Court). Seat: Delhi (Art 130).
• Strength: CJI + 7 in the original Constitution. By the Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Act 2026 it is now CJI + 37 = 38 (it was 34 from 2019) (as of Sep 2026). The power to increase the number lies with Parliament.
• Appointment: by the President — in practice on the recommendation of the collegium (CJI + 4 senior-most judges) (Second Judges case 1993). The NJAC (99th Amendment) was struck down by the SC in 2015.
• Qualifications: citizen + 5 years as HC judge / 10 years as HC advocate / a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President. Retirement age 65 years (HC: 62).
• Removal (Art 124(4)): "proved misbehaviour or incapacity" — in each House, a majority of the total membership + 2/3 of those present and voting; then an order of the President. Judges (Inquiry) Act 1968.
• Present CJI: Justice Surya Kant (53rd CJI, since 24 Nov 2025) (as of Sep 2026). First CJI: H.J. Kania.

B. High Court (Art 214–231)

• Art 214: a HC for each state. Art 231: a common HC for two or more states. There are 25 High Courts in the country (as of Sep 2026). Oldest: Calcutta HC (1862).
• Art 217: appointment by the President (in consultation with the CJI and the Governor). Art 224: additional/acting judges. Art 226: writs (FR + other rights). Art 227: superintendence over subordinate courts.
• Judge's oath: administered by the Governor (or a person appointed by him); resignation: to the President.

C. Judicial Review & PIL

• Judicial review = if the court finds a law or executive order against the Constitution, it can declare it unconstitutional (void). Basis: Art 13, 32, 226. Taken from the USA (Marbury v Madison 1803). It is part of the basic structure of the Constitution.
• PIL (Public Interest Litigation): any aware person/organisation can go to court in the interest of others (the poor, prisoners, labourers) — the rule of "locus standi" is relaxed. Credit goes to Justice P.N. Bhagwati and V.R. Krishna Iyer. The principle was strengthened in the S.P. Gupta case (1981). Even a post card/letter was treated as a writ petition (epistolary jurisdiction).
• Lok Adalat: statutory status by the Legal Services Authorities Act 1987; its decision is final, no appeal.

📌 13. State Executive & Legislature — Governor, Chief Minister, Vidhan Sabha (Part VI) (8 min read)

A. Governor

Oath: administered by the Chief Justice of the HC of that state. On the death/resignation of a Governor, arrangements are made under Art 160 — sometimes the Chief Justice of the HC is sworn in as acting Governor, and sometimes the Governor of a neighbouring state is given additional charge.

B. Chief Minister & Legislature

• The CM is appointed by the Governor (leader of the majority party in the assembly). Art 167: the CM communicates the decisions of the Council of Ministers to the Governor. The CM and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the Vidhan Sabha.
• Art 168: state legislature = Governor + one or two Houses. Art 169: the Vidhan Parishad is created/abolished by Parliament by law, when the Vidhan Sabha passes a resolution by special majority.
• States with a Vidhan Parishad: 6 — Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka (as of Sep 2026).
• Art 170: 60–500 members in the Vidhan Sabha. Art 171: Vidhan Parishad max 1/3 of the Vidhan Sabha, min 40. The Vidhan Parishad is a permanent House, member's term 6 years.
• The Vidhan Parishad too can hold a money bill for only 14 days (Art 198).

📌 14. Polity of Madhya Pradesh (MP Polity — Special) (6 min read)

📌 15. Panchayati Raj & Urban Local Bodies (73rd & 74th Amendment, PESA) (10 min read)

A. Timeline — asked very often

B. 73rd Amendment — Main Provisions (Part IX, Art 243–243O, 11th Schedule)

• 243A: Gram Sabha (all registered voters of the village). 243B: 3-tier panchayats (states with a population below 20 lakh may skip the intermediate level).
• 243D: Reservation — for SC/ST in proportion to their population; at least 1/3 of the seats for women (also in chairperson posts).
• 243E: term 5 years; if dissolved, election within 6 months.
• 243I: State Finance Commission — every 5 years (constituted by the Governor). 243K: State Election Commission — conducts panchayat elections; 243ZA — it conducts municipal elections too.
• 11th Schedule — 29 subjects. Minimum age to contest elections 21 years.

C. 74th Amendment — Urban Local Bodies (Part IXA, Art 243P–243ZG, 12th Schedule)

• 3 types: Nagar Panchayat (transitional area), Nagar Palika Parishad (smaller towns), Nagar Nigam (big cities).
• Ward committees (3 lakh+ population), District Planning Committee (243ZD), Metropolitan Planning Committee (243ZE). 12th Schedule — 18 subjects.

📌 16. Centre-State Relations (Part XI, XII) (10 min read)

A. Legislative Relations (Art 245–255)

• Art 248: Residuary powers — with Parliament/the Centre (Canada model). (In the USA, residuary powers are with the states.)
• Parliament can make laws even on the State List: Art 249 (2/3 resolution of the RS), Art 250 (national emergency), Art 252 (request of 2+ states), Art 253 (international treaty), Art 356 (President's rule).

B. Administrative & Financial Relations

• Art 256–257: states must comply with Central laws; the Centre can give directions. Art 365: if directions are not followed, Art 356 can be imposed.
• Art 263: Inter-State Council — can be set up by the President. Set up in 1990 on the recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission; chairman PM; all CMs are members.
• Art 275: grants-in-aid from the Centre to the states — on the recommendation of the Finance Commission. Art 282: discretionary grants.
• Art 280: Finance Commission — distribution of tax revenue between the Centre and the States.

C. Commissions & Councils

📌 17. Emergency Provisions (Part XVIII, Art 352–360) (7 min read)

• A proclamation under Art 352 only on the written advice of the Cabinet (44th). Art 358: in case of war/aggression, Art 19 is automatically suspended. Art 359: the President can suspend the right to move court for enforcing other FR — not Art 20, 21.
• Effects of Art 360: the salaries and allowances of any class of employees of the Centre and the states can be reduced — including SC/HC judges; money bills of the states can be reserved for the consideration of the President.

📌 18. Constitutional Amendment (Art 368), Basic Structure & Major Amendments (10 min read)

A. 3 Methods of Amendment

• An amendment bill only in Parliament (in either House), can be introduced by a minister or a private member; prior permission of the President is not required; no joint sitting; the President must give assent (24th Amendment 1971).

B. Basic Structure — Case Timeline

Basic features: supremacy of the Constitution, federalism, secularism, separation of powers, independence of the judiciary, judicial review, FR, democracy, free elections, rule of law, parliamentary system. The right of Parliament to amend any part of the Constitution without question is NOT a basic feature — on the contrary, limited amending power is a basic feature.

C. Major Amendments (Most Important)

Total amendments: 106 (as of Sep 2026). In April 2026 the 131st Constitution Amendment Bill 2026, related to increasing LS seats/delimitation, was defeated in the Lok Sabha for not getting the required special majority (17 April 2026; 298 in favour, 230 against).

📌 19. Constitutional & Statutory Bodies (ECI, UPSC, CAG, Finance Commission, NHRC...) (10 min read)

A. Constitutional Bodies

B. Statutory / Other Bodies

📌 20. Official Language & 8th Schedule (Part XVII, Art 343–351) (5 min read)

On 14 September 1949 the Constituent Assembly adopted Hindi as the official language — hence 14 Sep = Hindi Divas.

8th Schedule — 22 Languages

• Originally 14 languages (Sanskrit and Urdu were in the original list; English is not in the 8th Schedule).
• 21st (1967): Sindhi → 15 · 71st (1992): Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali → 18 · 92nd (2003): Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali → 22.
• Status of second official language for Sanskrit: Uttarakhand (2010) — the first state; then Himachal Pradesh (2019).

📌 21. Important Articles — Quick Revision List (6 min read)

📌 22. Basic Civics Concepts (6 min read)

• 4 elements of the State: population, definite territory, government, sovereignty. Sovereignty is what distinguishes the state from other organisations.
• Democracy: Abraham Lincoln — "government of the people, by the people, for the people". Direct (partly in Switzerland) and representative (India) democracy.
• Unitary vs Federal: basis = division of powers. Parliamentary vs Presidential: basis = relationship between the executive and the legislature. In a parliamentary system the executive is responsible to the legislature (UK, India); in a presidential system they are separate with a fixed term (USA).
• Rule of Law: A.V. Dicey — law is supreme, no one is above the law. Separation of Powers: Montesquieu.
• Secularism: the state has no religion, equal respect for all religions.
• Universal adult franchise: Art 326 — 18 years (61st Amendment). NOTA — in EVMs since 2013 by SC order (PUCL case).
• Aadhaar: a 12-digit unique identity number programme that gives identity to Indian residents; UIDAI (statutory by the Aadhaar Act 2016). Aadhaar is not proof of citizenship; it is proof of residence/identity.
• Rights and duties are two sides of the same coin — FD along with FR.